| 1. |
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY |
| 1.1. |
Hydrogen economy and its key components |
| 1.1.1. |
Hydrogen economy development needs (1/2) |
| 1.1.2. |
Hydrogen economy development needs (2/2) |
| 1.1.3. |
The future hydrogen value chain |
| 1.1.4. |
Hydrogen production: green, blue & turquoise |
| 1.1.5. |
National hydrogen strategies |
| 1.1.6. |
The colors of hydrogen |
| 1.1.7. |
Removing CO2 emissions from hydrogen production |
| 1.1.8. |
Electrolyzer systems overview |
| 1.1.9. |
Pros and cons of electrolyzer technologies |
| 1.1.10. |
The focus on PEM electrolyzers |
| 1.1.11. |
The push towards gigafactories |
| 1.1.12. |
Global electrolyzer players |
| 1.1.13. |
Important competing factors for the green H2 market |
| 1.1.14. |
The challenges in green hydrogen production |
| 1.1.15. |
The case for blue hydrogen production |
| 1.1.16. |
Blue hydrogen production – general overview |
| 1.1.17. |
Main blue hydrogen technologies |
| 1.1.18. |
Turquoise hydrogen from methane pyrolysis |
| 1.1.19. |
Blue hydrogen production value chain |
| 1.1.20. |
Value chain example: ATR + CCUS |
| 1.1.21. |
Leading blue hydrogen companies |
| 1.1.22. |
Blue H2 process comparison summary & key takeaways |
| 1.1.23. |
Hydrogen production processes by stage of development |
| 1.1.24. |
Hydrogen storage & distribution |
| 1.1.25. |
Overview of hydrogen storage & distribution |
| 1.1.26. |
Problems with compressed & cryogenic storage & distribution |
| 1.1.27. |
H2 storage & distribution technical comparison |
| 1.1.28. |
Storage technology pros & cons comparison |
| 1.1.29. |
Distribution technology pros & cons comparison |
| 1.1.30. |
Storage technology comparison |
| 1.1.31. |
Distribution technology comparison |
| 1.1.32. |
Hydrogen storage methods by stage of development |
| 1.1.33. |
Hydrogen distribution methods by stage of development |
| 1.1.34. |
Storage cost comparison summary |
| 1.1.35. |
Distribution cost comparison |
| 1.1.36. |
Key takeaways from hydrogen storage & distribution |
| 1.1.37. |
Fuel cells |
| 1.1.38. |
Introduction to fuel cells |
| 1.1.39. |
Overview of fuel cell technologies |
| 1.1.40. |
Comparison of fuel cell technologies |
| 1.1.41. |
Fuel cells company landscape |
| 1.2. |
Hydrogen end-use sectors |
| 1.2.1. |
Hydrogen end-use sectors |
| 1.2.2. |
Drivers for improving hydrogen cost-competitiveness |
| 1.2.3. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in refining |
| 1.2.4. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in low-carbon ammonia production |
| 1.2.5. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in low-carbon methanol production |
| 1.2.6. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in alternative fuel production |
| 1.2.7. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in sustainable steelmaking |
| 1.2.8. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in power & heat generation |
| 1.2.9. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in FCEVs |
| 1.2.10. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in the maritime sector |
| 1.2.11. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in rail transport |
| 1.2.12. |
Key takeaways from hydrogen aviation |
| 1.3. |
IDTechEx’s outlook on the hydrogen economy |
| 1.3.1. |
Hydrogen demand forecast |
| 1.3.2. |
Hydrogen production forecast |
| 1.3.3. |
Hydrogen market forecast (1/2) |
| 1.3.4. |
Hydrogen market forecast (2/2) |
| 1.3.5. |
IDTechEx’s outlook on low-carbon hydrogen |
| 2. |
INTRODUCTION TO THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY |
| 2.1. |
The need for unprecedented CO2 emission reductions |
| 2.2. |
Hydrogen is gaining momentum |
| 2.3. |
Hydrogen economy and its key components |
| 2.4. |
Production: the colors of hydrogen (1/2) |
| 2.5. |
Production: the colors of hydrogen (2/2) |
| 2.6. |
Storage & distribution |
| 2.7. |
End-use: which sectors could hydrogen decarbonize? (1/2) |
| 2.8. |
End-use: which sectors could hydrogen decarbonize? (2/2) |
| 2.9. |
Hydrogen economy development needs (1/2) |
| 2.10. |
Hydrogen economy development needs (2/2) |
| 3. |
3.GLOBAL HYDROGEN POLICIES |
| 3.1. |
Overview |
| 3.1.1. |
2021-2022 Geopolitics |
| 3.1.2. |
National hydrogen strategies (1/2) |
| 3.1.3. |
National hydrogen strategies (2/2) |
| 3.1.4. |
Policy developments (1/3) |
| 3.1.5. |
Policy developments (2/3) |
| 3.1.6. |
Policy developments (3/3) |
| 3.1.7. |
Global policy impacts |
| 3.1.8. |
European Union (EU) hydrogen strategy |
| 3.1.9. |
EU’s hydrogen strategy |
| 3.1.10. |
EU’s hydrogen strategy – focuses & key actions |
| 3.1.11. |
EU’s hydrogen strategy – investments |
| 3.1.12. |
REPowerEU, ES Joint Declaration & RED revision |
| 3.1.13. |
Clean Hydrogen Partnership |
| 3.1.14. |
National strategies vs EU strategy |
| 3.1.15. |
National strategy example – Netherlands |
| 3.2. |
USA hydrogen strategy |
| 3.2.1. |
US’ hydrogen strategy |
| 3.2.2. |
Tax credit changes in the US IRA fostering blue hydrogen |
| 3.2.3. |
The impact of IRA tax credits on the cost of hydrogen |
| 3.3. |
UK hydrogen strategy |
| 3.3.1. |
UK’s hydrogen strategy |
| 3.3.2. |
The UK’s CCUS clusters for blue hydrogen |
| 3.3.3. |
UK’s CCUS clusters: East Coast Cluster |
| 3.3.4. |
UK’s CCUS clusters: HyNet North West Cluster |
| 3.4. |
Other countries’ hydrogen strategies |
| 3.4.1. |
Canada’s hydrogen strategy |
| 3.4.2. |
China’s hydrogen strategy |
| 3.4.3. |
Japan’s hydrogen strategy |
| 3.4.4. |
South Korea’s hydrogen strategy |
| 3.5. |
Hydrogen certification |
| 3.5.1. |
Why is hydrogen certification needed? |
| 3.5.2. |
Elements for a successful certification scheme |
| 3.5.3. |
Emissions system boundaries for blue & green H2 |
| 3.5.4. |
Landscape of hydrogen certification schemes (1/2) |
| 3.5.5. |
Landscape of hydrogen certification schemes (2/2) |
| 3.5.6. |
Voluntary certification standards |
| 3.5.7. |
Mandatory certification standards |
| 3.5.8. |
The potential role of carbon pricing in the hydrogen economy |
| 4. |
LOW-CARBON HYDROGEN PRODUCTION |
| 4.1. |
Overview |
| 4.1.1. |
State of the hydrogen industry |
| 4.1.2. |
The colors of hydrogen |
| 4.1.3. |
The colors of hydrogen |
| 4.1.4. |
Traditional hydrogen production |
| 4.1.5. |
Removing CO2 emissions from hydrogen production |
| 4.1.6. |
Hydrogen production processes by stage of development |
| 4.1.7. |
Recent development in the hydrogen market |
| 4.2. |
Green hydrogen |
| 4.2.1. |
What is green hydrogen? |
| 4.2.2. |
Types of water electrolyzer |
| 4.2.3. |
Electrolyzer systems overview |
| 4.2.4. |
Typical green hydrogen plant layout |
| 4.2.5. |
Alkaline water electrolyzer (AWE) |
| 4.2.6. |
AWE system design example |
| 4.2.7. |
Anion exchange membrane electrolyzer (AEMEL) |
| 4.2.8. |
Proton exchange membrane electrolyzer (PEMEL) |
| 4.2.9. |
PEMEL system design example |
| 4.2.10. |
The focus on PEM electrolyzers |
| 4.2.11. |
Plug-and-play & customizable PEMEL systems |
| 4.2.12. |
AWE is still a popular technology |
| 4.2.13. |
Battolyser – battery & electrolyzer system |
| 4.2.14. |
Solid oxide electrolyzer (SOEL) |
| 4.2.15. |
SOEL systems: a substitute for AWE? |
| 4.2.16. |
SOEC system design example |
| 4.2.17. |
Electrolyzer degradation |
| 4.2.18. |
Considerations for choosing electrolyzer technology |
| 4.2.19. |
Pros and cons of electrolyzer technologies |
| 4.2.20. |
Electrolyzer improvements |
| 4.2.21. |
Electrolyzer market overview |
| 4.2.22. |
Electrolyzer overview |
| 4.2.23. |
Global electrolyzer players |
| 4.2.24. |
Electrolyzer vendors by region |
| 4.2.25. |
Market addressed by EL manufacturer |
| 4.2.26. |
The push towards gigafactories |
| 4.2.27. |
Electrolyzer suppliers partnering with project developers |
| 4.2.28. |
Other projects discussed at WHS 2023 |
| 4.2.29. |
Future trend of the electrolyzer market |
| 4.2.30. |
Important competing factors for the green H2 market |
| 4.2.31. |
Drivers and restraints for green hydrogen |
| 4.2.32. |
The challenges in green hydrogen production |
| 4.3. |
Blue & turquoise hydrogen |
| 4.3.1. |
The case for blue hydrogen production |
| 4.3.2. |
Key drivers for blue hydrogen development |
| 4.3.3. |
Blue hydrogen supply chain |
| 4.3.4. |
Carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) |
| 4.3.5. |
Blue hydrogen production – general overview |
| 4.3.6. |
Main blue hydrogen technologies |
| 4.3.7. |
Overview of production methods covered |
| 4.3.8. |
Autothermal reforming (ATR) – a promising blue H2 technology |
| 4.3.9. |
Autothermal reforming (ATR) – a promising blue H2 technology |
| 4.3.10. |
Turquoise hydrogen from methane pyrolysis |
| 4.3.11. |
Methane pyrolysis variations |
| 4.3.12. |
Pre- vs post-combustion CO2 capture for blue hydrogen |
| 4.3.13. |
Carbon capture technologies |
| 4.3.14. |
Key considerations in designing blue hydrogen processes |
| 4.3.15. |
Novel processes for blue hydrogen production |
| 4.3.16. |
Pros & cons of production technologies (1/3) |
| 4.3.17. |
Pros & cons of production technologies (2/3) |
| 4.3.18. |
Pros & cons of production technologies (3/3) |
| 4.3.19. |
Blue H2 process comparison summary & key takeaways |
| 4.3.20. |
Blue hydrogen production value chain |
| 4.3.21. |
SMR + CCUS value chain |
| 4.3.22. |
POX + CCUS value chain |
| 4.3.23. |
ATR + CCUS value chain |
| 4.3.24. |
Methane pyrolysis activities around the world |
| 4.3.25. |
CCUS company landscape |
| 4.3.26. |
The UK will be a leading blue hydrogen hub |
| 4.3.27. |
Leading blue hydrogen companies |
| 4.3.28. |
Potential business model for blue hydrogen projects |
| 4.3.29. |
Is blue hydrogen production innovative? |
| 4.3.30. |
Key innovations in blue hydrogen technology (1/2) |
| 4.3.31. |
Key innovations in blue hydrogen technology (2/2) |
| 4.3.32. |
Innovation example – more compact units |
| 4.3.33. |
Technological challenges & opportunities for innovation |
| 4.3.34. |
Potential key challenges with blue hydrogen |
| 4.3.35. |
CCUS technological challenges & opportunities for innovation |
| 5. |
HYDROGEN STORAGE & DISTRIBUTION |
| 5.1. |
Overview |
| 5.1.1. |
Motivation for hydrogen storage & distribution |
| 5.1.2. |
Energy density of hydrogen |
| 5.1.3. |
Problems with compressed & cryogenic storage & distribution |
| 5.1.4. |
Need for alternative storage & distribution |
| 5.1.5. |
Motivation & challenges with pipeline transmission |
| 5.1.6. |
Overview of storage methods |
| 5.1.7. |
Overview of distribution methods |
| 5.1.8. |
Key takeaways from hydrogen storage & distribution |
| 5.2. |
Comparison of hydrogen storage & distribution methods |
| 5.2.1. |
H2 storage & distribution technical comparison (1/2) |
| 5.2.2. |
H2 storage & distribution technical comparison (2/2) |
| 5.2.3. |
Storage technology pros & cons comparison |
| 5.2.4. |
Distribution technology pros & cons comparison |
| 5.2.5. |
Storage technology comparison |
| 5.2.6. |
Distribution technology comparison |
| 5.2.7. |
Hydrogen storage methods by stage of development |
| 5.2.8. |
Hydrogen distribution methods by stage of development |
| 5.2.9. |
Storage cost comparison for stationary storage |
| 5.2.10. |
Storage cost comparison summary |
| 5.2.11. |
Distribution cost comparison |
| 5.3. |
Compressed gas storage & distribution |
| 5.3.1. |
Key takeaways from compressed hydrogen storage |
| 5.3.2. |
Compressed hydrogen storage |
| 5.3.3. |
Compressed storage vessel classification |
| 5.3.4. |
Reduction in compressed cylinder weight |
| 5.3.5. |
Stationary storage systems |
| 5.3.6. |
Compressed tube trailers |
| 5.3.7. |
FCEV onboard hydrogen tanks |
| 5.3.8. |
Type V hydrogen storage |
| 5.3.9. |
Balance of plant (BOP) components |
| 5.3.10. |
Hydrogen compression equipment |
| 5.3.11. |
Bulk storage & distribution system suppliers |
| 5.3.12. |
Onboard FCEV tank suppliers |
| 5.3.13. |
Stationary & onboard FCEV storage suppliers |
| 5.4. |
Hydrogen liquefaction, LH2 storage & distribution |
| 5.4.1. |
Key takeaways for H2 liquefaction, LH2 storage & distribution |
| 5.4.2. |
Liquid hydrogen (LH2) |
| 5.4.3. |
Ortho-para conversion (OPC) |
| 5.4.4. |
Types of hydrogen liquefaction cycles & refrigerants |
| 5.4.5. |
Hydrogen liquefaction – helium Brayton cycle |
| 5.4.6. |
Hydrogen liquefaction – hydrogen Claude cycle |
| 5.4.7. |
State-of-the-art liquefaction plants |
| 5.4.8. |
Cost of LH2 production |
| 5.4.9. |
Improving hydrogen liquefaction |
| 5.4.10. |
Commercial liquefaction units |
| 5.4.11. |
LH2 storage tanks |
| 5.4.12. |
Spherical LH2 storage vessels |
| 5.4.13. |
LH2 tanks for onboard FCEV storage |
| 5.4.14. |
Cryo-compressed hydrogen storage (CcH2) |
| 5.4.15. |
BMW’S Cryo-compressed storage tank |
| 5.4.16. |
LH2 transport trailers |
| 5.4.17. |
Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain (HESC) – Australia & Japan |
| 5.4.18. |
Liquefied hydrogen tanker |
| 5.4.19. |
LH2 loading, receiving & bunkering facilities |
| 5.4.20. |
Components needed for loading/unloading of LH2 |
| 5.4.21. |
Challenges with LH2 transport |
| 5.4.22. |
Hydrogen liquefaction plant suppliers |
| 5.4.23. |
Cryogenic hydrogen storage suppliers |
| 5.4.24. |
Hydrogen liquefaction, LH2 storage & distribution SWOT |
| 5.5. |
Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) |
| 5.5.1. |
Key takeaways for underground hydrogen storage |
| 5.5.2. |
Introduction to underground hydrogen storage |
| 5.5.3. |
Salt caverns |
| 5.5.4. |
Salt cavern formation by solution mining |
| 5.5.5. |
Porous rock formations |
| 5.5.6. |
Porous rock formations – oil & gas fields |
| 5.5.7. |
Porous rock formations – aquifers |
| 5.5.8. |
Lined rock caverns for H2, NH3 & LOHC storage |
| 5.5.9. |
UHS mechanism & key storage parameters |
| 5.5.10. |
Storage mechanism & surface facilities for UHS |
| 5.5.11. |
Major cost components of UHS |
| 5.5.12. |
Potential use cases for UHS |
| 5.5.13. |
Pros & cons of salt cavern storage |
| 5.5.14. |
Pros & cons of depleted oil & gas fields |
| 5.5.15. |
Pros & cons of aquifers |
| 5.5.16. |
Pros & cons of line rock caverns (LRCs) |
| 5.5.17. |
Current sites used for UHS |
| 5.5.18. |
Salt cavern project examples |
| 5.5.19. |
Commercial project example: H2CAST Etzel |
| 5.5.20. |
Porous rock & LRC projects |
| 5.5.21. |
Company landscape for UHS |
| 5.5.22. |
Comparison of UHS methods |
| 5.5.23. |
Underground hydrogen storage SWOT analysis |
| 5.6. |
Solid-state storage: hydrides |
| 5.6.1. |
Summary of solid-state hydrogen storage |
| 5.6.2. |
Introduction to solid-state hydrogen storage |
| 5.6.3. |
Hydrides for hydrogen storage |
| 5.6.4. |
Hydride classification |
| 5.6.5. |
Thermodynamic & kinetic considerations for metal hydrides |
| 5.6.6. |
The need for room temperature alloys |
| 5.6.7. |
Common room temperature alloy types & examples |
| 5.6.8. |
Complex hydrides (1/2) |
| 5.6.9. |
Complex hydrides (2/2) |
| 5.6.10. |
Complex hydride case study – Electriq Global |
| 5.6.11. |
Comparison of hydride materials |
| 5.6.12. |
Typical metal hydride absorption/desorption cycle |
| 5.6.13. |
Integration of metal hydrides into storage tanks |
| 5.6.14. |
Metal hydride storage system design |
| 5.6.15. |
Commercial system case study: GKN Hydrogen |
| 5.6.16. |
Potential hydrogen storage applications for metal hydrides |
| 5.6.17. |
Key players in hydride storage systems |
| 5.6.18. |
Company landscape for hydrides |
| 5.7. |
Solid-state storage: novel materials & methods |
| 5.7.1. |
Storage by reduction of iron oxide – AMBARtec case study |
| 5.7.2. |
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) |
| 5.7.3. |
Zeolites |
| 5.7.4. |
Other novel materials |
| 5.8. |
Hydrogen carriers: ammonia, methanol & LOHC |
| 5.8.1. |
Summary of hydrogen carriers |
| 5.8.2. |
Introduction to hydrogen carriers |
| 5.8.3. |
Methanol as a hydrogen carrier |
| 5.8.4. |
Supply chain using ammonia |
| 5.8.5. |
Supply chain considerations for ammonia |
| 5.8.6. |
Options for green & blue NH3 production |
| 5.8.7. |
Ammonia cracking – a key missing component |
| 5.8.8. |
Membranes in ammonia cracking |
| 5.8.9. |
Japan’s ammonia supply chain initiatives |
| 5.8.10. |
Energy efficiency concerns for ammonia |
| 5.8.11. |
NH3 supply chain efforts |
| 5.8.12. |
Supply chain using LOHCs |
| 5.8.13. |
Supply chain considerations for LOHCs |
| 5.8.14. |
Critical considerations in developing LOHC systems |
| 5.8.15. |
Examples of LOHC systems |
| 5.8.16. |
SPERA Hydrogen – Chiyoda’s LOHC project |
| 5.8.17. |
Direct MCH synthesis – ENEOS Corporation |
| 5.8.18. |
LOHC supply chain efforts |
| 5.8.19. |
Comparison of hydrogen carrier properties |
| 5.8.20. |
Comparison of hydrogen carriers to LH2 |
| 5.8.21. |
Pros & cons of hydrogen carriers |
| 5.8.22. |
Cost comparison of hydrogen carriers |
| 5.9. |
Hydrogen pipeline transmission, blending & deblending |
| 5.9.1. |
Hydrogen pipelines summary |
| 5.9.2. |
Introduction to hydrogen pipelines |
| 5.9.3. |
Current state of hydrogen pipelines |
| 5.9.4. |
Hydrogen pipeline infrastructure |
| 5.9.5. |
Blending of H2 into natural gas – HENG (1/2) |
| 5.9.6. |
Blending of H2 into natural gas – HENG (2/2) |
| 5.9.7. |
Hydrogen gas blending system |
| 5.9.8. |
Hydrogen deblending from HENG (1/3) |
| 5.9.9. |
Hydrogen deblending from HENG (2/3) |
| 5.9.10. |
Hydrogen deblending from HENG (3/3) |
| 5.9.11. |
Deblending: Linde Engineering & Evonik |
| 5.9.12. |
Emerging membranes for deblending |
| 5.9.13. |
Pros & cons of HENG |
| 5.9.14. |
Alloys for hydrogen pipelines & components |
| 5.9.15. |
Composite hydrogen pipelines |
| 5.9.16. |
Hydrogen pipeline construction |
| 5.9.17. |
Above ground installations for H2 pipelines |
| 5.9.18. |
Hydrogen compression stations (1/2) |
| 5.9.19. |
Hydrogen compression stations (2/2) |
| 5.9.20. |
Challenges in repurposing natural gas pipelines |
| 5.9.21. |
Pressure considerations in H2 pipelines |
| 5.9.22. |
Estimated cost of new hydrogen pipelines |
| 5.9.23. |
European Hydrogen Backbone (EHB) |
| 5.9.24. |
H2 pipeline & blending activities |
| 5.9.25. |
Case study project: HyNet North West Hydrogen Pipeline |
| 5.9.26. |
Company landscape for pipelines |
| 5.9.27. |
Hydrogen pipelines SWOT analysis |
| 5.10. |
Materials for hydrogen storage & distribution vessels |
| 5.10.1. |
Types of hydrogen embrittlement |
| 5.10.2. |
Hydrogen embrittlement & mechanisms |
| 5.10.3. |
Factors influenced H2 embrittlement |
| 5.10.4. |
Effect of impurities on H2 embrittlement |
| 5.10.5. |
Hydrogen embrittlement & compatible metal alloys |
| 5.10.6. |
Alloys for hydrogen pipelines & components |
| 5.10.7. |
Composite hydrogen pipelines |
| 5.10.8. |
Standards for pressure vessels |
| 5.10.9. |
Material & manufacturing considerations for pressure vessels |
| 5.10.10. |
Liner materials for Type III & IV vessels |
| 5.10.11. |
Fiber materials for Type III & IV vessels |
| 5.10.12. |
Materials for cryogenic vessels |
| 5.10.13. |
Composite cryogenic vessels |
| 6. |
HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS |
| 6.1. |
Introduction to fuel cells |
| 6.1.1. |
Overview of fuel cell technologies |
| 6.1.2. |
Comparison of fuel cell technologies |
| 6.1.3. |
Fuel cells company landscape |
| 6.2. |
PEM fuel cells (PEMFCs) |
| 6.2.1. |
What is a PEM fuel cell? |
| 6.2.2. |
Major components for PEM fuel cells |
| 6.2.3. |
PEMFC assembly and materials |
| 6.2.4. |
Membrane assembly terminology |
| 6.2.5. |
High temperature PEMFC (1/2) |
| 6.2.6. |
High temperature PEMFC (2/2) |
| 6.2.7. |
Transport applications for fuel cells |
| 6.2.8. |
PEMFC market players |
| 6.2.9. |
Applications for fuel cells and major players |
| 6.2.10. |
BPP: Purpose and form factor |
| 6.2.11. |
Materials for BPPs: Graphite vs metal |
| 6.2.12. |
GDL: Purpose and form factor |
| 6.2.13. |
Membrane: Purpose and form factor |
| 6.2.14. |
Water management in the FC |
| 6.2.15. |
Market leaders for membrane materials |
| 6.2.16. |
Catalyst: Purpose and form factor |
| 6.2.17. |
Trends for fuel cell catalysts |
| 6.2.18. |
Balance-of-plant for PEM fuel cells |
| 6.2.19. |
Fuel cells within the FCEV market |
| 6.2.20. |
Hydrogen composition for PEMFCs |
| 6.3. |
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) |
| 6.3.1. |
SOFC working principle |
| 6.3.2. |
SOFC assembly and materials |
| 6.3.3. |
Electrolyte |
| 6.3.4. |
Anode |
| 6.3.5. |
Cathode |
| 6.3.6. |
Interconnect for planar SOFCs |
| 6.3.7. |
Tubular SOFC |
| 6.3.8. |
Polarization losses |
| 6.3.9. |
SOFC variations |
| 6.3.10. |
Fuel choices for SOFCs |
| 6.3.11. |
Why now? |
| 6.3.12. |
Overview of key players |
| 6.3.13. |
Main applications for SOFCs |
| 6.4. |
Alternative fuel cell technologies & comparison |
| 6.4.1. |
Alternative fuel cell technologies |
| 6.4.2. |
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) |
| 6.4.3. |
AFC electrolyte (1/2) |
| 6.4.4. |
AFC electrolyte (2/2) |
| 6.4.5. |
Comparison of AFC technologies |
| 6.4.6. |
AFC electrodes |
| 6.4.7. |
Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) |
| 6.4.8. |
DMFC drawbacks (1/3) |
| 6.4.9. |
DMFC drawbacks (2/3) |
| 6.4.10. |
DMFC drawbacks (3/3) |
| 6.4.11. |
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) |
| 6.4.12. |
PAFC electrolyte |
| 6.4.13. |
PAFC electrodes & catalyst |
| 6.4.14. |
PAFC stack |
| 6.4.15. |
PAFC cooling system |
| 6.4.16. |
PAFC cell performance |
| 6.4.17. |
Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) |
| 6.4.18. |
MCFCs can use syngas |
| 6.4.19. |
Fuel reforming in MCFCs |
| 6.4.20. |
MCFC electrolyte |
| 6.4.21. |
MCFC anode |
| 6.4.22. |
MCFC cathode |
| 6.4.23. |
MCFC components |
| 7. |
END-USE SECTORS FOR HYDROGEN |
| 7.1. |
Overview |
| 7.1.1. |
Which sectors could hydrogen decarbonize? |
| 7.1.2. |
Power-to-X (P2X) |
| 7.1.3. |
Where can low-carbon hydrogen be used? |
| 7.1.4. |
Current & emerging applications for hydrogen |
| 7.1.5. |
Which applications are the most competitive? (1/2) |
| 7.1.6. |
Which applications are the most competitive? (2/2) |
| 7.1.7. |
Drivers for improving hydrogen cost-competitiveness |
| 7.1.8. |
Conventional H2 applications |
| 7.2. |
Decarbonizing conventional hydrogen applications: refining |
| 7.2.1. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in refining |
| 7.2.2. |
Hydrogen uses in petrochemical refining (1/2) |
| 7.2.3. |
Hydrogen uses in petrochemical refining (2/2) |
| 7.2.4. |
How do refineries source hydrogen? |
| 7.2.5. |
Current consumption in the refining sector |
| 7.2.6. |
Where can low-carbon H2 integrate into refining? |
| 7.2.7. |
Drivers for H2 capacity growth in refining |
| 7.2.8. |
Combustion of fossil fuels in a refinery |
| 7.2.9. |
Essar’s hydrogen-fired furnace |
| 7.2.10. |
REFHYNE project – green H2 in refining (1/2) |
| 7.2.11. |
REFHYNE project – green H2 in refining (2/2) |
| 7.2.12. |
Company landscape for H2 use in refining |
| 7.3. |
Decarbonizing conventional hydrogen applications: ammonia production |
| 7.3.1. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in low-carbon ammonia production |
| 7.3.2. |
Current state of the ammonia market |
| 7.3.3. |
The future of the ammonia market |
| 7.3.4. |
Ammonia production – Haber-Bosch process |
| 7.3.5. |
Options for green & blue NH3 production |
| 7.3.6. |
New green ammonia plant designs |
| 7.3.7. |
Direct NH3 production by N2 electrolysis |
| 7.3.8. |
Cost competitiveness of blue & green NH3 |
| 7.3.9. |
Pros & cons of NH3 plant decarbonization options |
| 7.3.10. |
Drivers for H2 capacity growth in ammonia |
| 7.3.11. |
Commercial efforts in low-carbon ammonia |
| 7.3.12. |
Horisont Energi – blue & green NH3 projects |
| 7.3.13. |
Company landscape for H2 use in ammonia |
| 7.4. |
Decarbonizing conventional hydrogen applications: methanol production |
| 7.4.1. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in low-carbon methanol production |
| 7.4.2. |
Current state of the methanol market |
| 7.4.3. |
Future methanol applications |
| 7.4.4. |
Traditional methanol production |
| 7.4.5. |
Options for blue & green MeOH production |
| 7.4.6. |
Improved methanol process – Topsoe |
| 7.4.7. |
E-methanol production options (1/2) |
| 7.4.8. |
E-methanol production options (2/2) |
| 7.4.9. |
The need for optimized e-methanol catalysts |
| 7.4.10. |
Bio-methanol production |
| 7.4.11. |
Cost parity is a challenge for e-methanol |
| 7.4.12. |
Pros & cons of main MeOH plant decarbonization options |
| 7.4.13. |
Drivers for H2 capacity growth in MeOH |
| 7.4.14. |
Commercial low-carbon methanol efforts |
| 7.5. |
Alternative fuel production |
| 7.5.1. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in alternative fuel production |
| 7.5.2. |
Alternative fuels scope |
| 7.5.3. |
Biofuel generations |
| 7.5.4. |
Biofuel technology overview |
| 7.5.5. |
Role of hydrogen in synthetic fuel & chemical production |
| 7.5.6. |
2nd generation biofuel production processes |
| 7.5.7. |
Biojet and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) |
| 7.5.8. |
E-fuels |
| 7.5.9. |
E-fuel production pathway overview |
| 7.5.10. |
Routes to e-fuel production |
| 7.5.11. |
Applications for e-fuels |
| 7.5.12. |
Non-fossil alternative fuel development stages |
| 7.5.13. |
Comparing alternative fuels |
| 7.5.14. |
Comparing alternative fuels – SWOT |
| 7.5.15. |
E-fuel players |
| 7.5.16. |
Biofuel supply chain |
| 7.5.17. |
E-fuel supply chain |
| 7.5.18. |
Renewable diesel player map |
| 7.6. |
Sustainable steel production using hydrogen |
| 7.6.1. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in sustainable steelmaking |
| 7.6.2. |
Introduction to sustainable steel production |
| 7.6.3. |
Current steelmaking landscape (1/2) |
| 7.6.4. |
Current steelmaking landscape (2/2) |
| 7.6.5. |
Steelmaking process options |
| 7.6.6. |
The most common routes to steelmaking |
| 7.6.7. |
Traditional BF-BOF process |
| 7.6.8. |
DRI-EAF process |
| 7.6.9. |
Production, energy use & CO2 emissions by process |
| 7.6.10. |
Scrap-EAF process & the need for net-zero DRI-EAF |
| 7.6.11. |
Decarbonized process options |
| 7.6.12. |
Opportunities for integration of H2 technologies into steelmaking |
| 7.6.13. |
Circored – fluidized bed H2-DRI process |
| 7.6.14. |
H2-DRI-EAF using green H2 |
| 7.6.15. |
The need for carbon & lime in the EAF |
| 7.6.16. |
Potential major challenges for H2-DRI-EAF |
| 7.6.17. |
Techno-economics of a H2-DRI-EAF plant |
| 7.6.18. |
Energy consumption of plant using H2-DRI |
| 7.6.19. |
Case study project: HYBRIT |
| 7.6.20. |
Major steel producers developing H2-DRI-EAF projects |
| 7.6.21. |
Company landscape for H2 use in steelmaking |
| 7.6.22. |
H2 in sustainable steel production SWOT |
| 7.7. |
Power & heat applications |
| 7.7.1. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in power & heat generation |
| 7.7.2. |
Hydrogen in power and heating applications |
| 7.7.3. |
Hydrogen in power-to-gas energy storage for renewables |
| 7.7.4. |
Battolyser – battery & electrolyzer system |
| 7.7.5. |
Comparison of energy storage methods |
| 7.7.6. |
Inefficiencies of energy storage with H2 |
| 7.7.7. |
Commercial activity in H2 for energy storage |
| 7.7.8. |
Off-grid power using hydrogen |
| 7.7.9. |
Companies developing off-grid solutions |
| 7.7.10. |
Combined heat & power (CHP) generation |
| 7.7.11. |
Why are hydrogen CHP plants needed? |
| 7.7.12. |
Companies & commercial efforts in hydrogen CHP |
| 7.7.13. |
Main applications for SOFCs |
| 7.7.14. |
Classification of fuels by carbon emissions |
| 7.7.15. |
SOFCs for Utilities |
| 7.7.16. |
Hydrogen in homes & heating appliances – THyGA |
| 7.7.17. |
Hydrogen in homes & heating appliances – Cadent Gas |
| 7.7.18. |
Hydrogen in industrial combustion systems |
| 7.8. |
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) |
| 7.8.1. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in FCEVs |
| 7.8.2. |
Outlook for fuel cell cars |
| 7.8.3. |
Outlook for fuel cell LCVs |
| 7.8.4. |
Outlook for fuel cell trucks |
| 7.8.5. |
Outlook for fuel cell buses |
| 7.8.6. |
Fuel cell passenger cars |
| 7.8.7. |
Transporting hydrogen to refuelling stations |
| 7.8.8. |
Fuel cell cars in production |
| 7.8.9. |
Toyota Mirai 2nd generation |
| 7.8.10. |
Hyundai NEXO |
| 7.8.11. |
Light commercial vehicles (LCVs) – Vans |
| 7.8.12. |
Fuel cell LCVs |
| 7.8.13. |
Truck Classifications |
| 7.8.14. |
Heavy duty trucks: BEV or fuel cell? |
| 7.8.15. |
Fuel cell buses |
| 7.8.16. |
Main pros & cons of fuel cell buses |
| 7.9. |
Hydrogen refueling for FCEVs |
| 7.9.1. |
Hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) |
| 7.9.2. |
State of hydrogen refueling infrastructure worldwide (1/2) |
| 7.9.3. |
State of hydrogen refueling infrastructure worldwide (2/2) |
| 7.9.4. |
Notable commercial efforts in HRS |
| 7.9.5. |
Alternative hydrogen refueling concepts |
| 7.9.6. |
Cost of hydrogen at the pump (1/2) |
| 7.9.7. |
Cost of hydrogen at the pump (2/2) |
| 7.10. |
Fuel cells in marine applications |
| 7.10.1. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in the maritime sector |
| 7.10.2. |
Low carbon fuels in the marine sector |
| 7.10.3. |
Fuel cells technologies for ships |
| 7.10.4. |
Fuel cell system integration into a ship |
| 7.10.5. |
Hydrogen fuel cell ship design |
| 7.10.6. |
SOFC for marine |
| 7.10.7. |
Bunkering overview |
| 7.10.8. |
Alternative fuels by technology & vessel |
| 7.10.9. |
Energy Density Benchmarking of Fuels |
| 7.10.10. |
Qualitative Benchmarking of Low Carbon Fuels |
| 7.10.11. |
Efficiency Comparison: Battery, PEMFC, SOFC |
| 7.10.12. |
LNG, Hydrogen & Ammonia Compared |
| 7.11. |
Fuel cell trains |
| 7.11.1. |
Key takeaways for hydrogen use in rail transport |
| 7.11.2. |
Fuel Cell Train Overview |
| 7.11.3. |
Fuel Cell Technology Benchmarking for Rail |
| 7.11.4. |
Fuel Cell Train Operating Modes |
| 7.11.5. |
Fuel Cell Energy Density Advantage |
| 7.11.6. |
Range Advantage for Fuel Cell Trains |
| 7.11.7. |
Rail Fuel Cell Suppliers |
| 7.11.8. |
Hydrogen Rail History |
| 7.11.9. |
FC Multiple Unit Summary |
| 7.11.10. |
Alstom leading the way in FC multiple unit orders |
| 7.11.11. |
Alstom Coradia iLint schematic |
| 7.11.12. |
Cummins: fuel cell supplier to Alstom |
| 7.12. |
Hydrogen aviation |
| 7.12.1. |
Key takeaways from hydrogen aviation |
| 7.12.2. |
Decarbonizing aviation |
| 7.12.3. |
Options for hydrogen use in aviation |
| 7.12.4. |
Key systems needed for hydrogen aircraft |
| 7.12.5. |
Example design for fuel cell aircraft |
| 7.12.6. |
Comparison of technology options |
| 7.12.7. |
Major challenges hindering hydrogen aviation |
| 7.12.8. |
Case study: ZeroAvia |
| 7.12.9. |
Smaller hydrogen FC aircraft: drones & eVTOL |
| 7.12.10. |
Hydrogen aviation company landscape |
| 8. |
MARKET FORECASTS |
| 8.1. |
Forecasting assumptions & methodology |
| 8.2. |
Hydrogen demand forecast (1/2) |
| 8.3. |
Hydrogen demand forecast (2/2) |
| 8.4. |
Hydrogen production forecast (1/2) |
| 8.5. |
Hydrogen production forecast (2/2) |
| 8.6. |
Hydrogen market forecast (1/2) |
| 8.7. |
Hydrogen market forecast (2/2) |
| 8.8. |
IDTechEx’s outlook on low-carbon hydrogen |
| 9. |
COMPANY PROFILES |
| 9.1. |
Hydrogen storage & distribution |
| 9.1.1. |
AMBARtec |
| 9.1.2. |
Cadent Gas |
| 9.1.3. |
Chiyoda Corporation |
| 9.1.4. |
Cryomotive |
| 9.1.5. |
Electriq Global |
| 9.1.6. |
ENEOS Corporation |
| 9.1.7. |
GKN Hydrogen |
| 9.1.8. |
Hexagon Purus |
| 9.1.9. |
Hydrogenious LOHC Technologies |
| 9.1.10. |
Kawasaki Heavy Industries |
| 9.1.11. |
Storag Etzel |
| 9.1.12. |
Storengy |
| 9.2. |
Hydrogen production |
| 9.2.1. |
Air Liquide |
| 9.2.2. |
Air Products |
| 9.2.3. |
Hazer Group |
| 9.2.4. |
Johnson Matthey |
| 9.2.5. |
Monolith |
| 9.2.6. |
Mote |
| 9.2.7. |
Shell |
| 9.2.8. |
Topsoe |
| 9.2.9. |
Transform Materials |
| 9.3. |
Hydrogen project developers |
| 9.3.1. |
Aker Horizons |
| 9.3.2. |
Equinor |
| 9.3.3. |
Horisont Energi |
| 9.4. |
End-users |
| 9.4.1. |
Atmonia |
| 9.4.2. |
H2 Green Steel |
| 9.4.3. |
HYBRIT |
| 9.4.4. |
Midrex Technologies |
